Study of Aesthetics of Shadow Drafting and Carving

    Jiang Yuxiang

Shadow carving, folk paper cutting (or paper engraving), brick engraving, stone engraving, copper engraving, wood engraving, carving and printing on allover (used to use leather but now replaced by paperboard or celluloid) come from people's life as the practical industrial arts, which share the similarity of art and crafts for practice. Their differences lie in off-the-shelf items and scopes. Carving shadow figures and puppets are not only for appreciation, but also for performance in a better way. Therefore, in making of shadow figures and puppets, visual and aesthetic interests of audiences must be taken into account. Sensory stimulation of beauty is not the only thing it brings to audiences, communication is important as well, helping audiences to expand their imagination on beauty and enlarge their aftertaste. Thus, complanate shadow figure is required to generate 3D effect, rendering the stillness alive. Shadow figures are the performers in shadow plays. Each shadow figure is required to show the distinct characteristics of persona to echo with each story. In response to the special requirements on shadow figure, a whole set of expression techniques and procedures came into being. Those techniques or procedures are the fruits of countless shadow play artists’ practical experience, which were handed down orally and are still in use. Laws in shadow figure making have no written records and we have to analyze and summarize them from a large variety of shadow figures in the late 19^th century and early 20^th century.

I. Variety of shadow figures

Variety of shadow figures is called as “member” by shadow play artists. How many members will a shadow play troupe has? The answer varies by region and by troupe. For richer troupes, they have more than 1,000 shadow figures while for the poorer ones, they may only have dozens. Generally, for northern shadow member, head (head crown) and body (weapons and upholders) ratio is 10:1 and sometimes, may at 2:1, that is to say, in shadow puppet troupes of poorer conditions, 1,000 heads shall be matched with 100 bodies and for those enjoying favorable conditions, at least 500 bodies are required for 1,000 heats to meet the demand of performance. Member of northern shadow play has 12 categories (packages): (1) female literati; (2) female martial artist; (3) male literati; (4) male martial artist; (5) official with hat; (6) general & marshal; (7) emperor; (8) rebellious leader; (9) immortal, ghost and monster; (10) auspiciousness; (11)sundries; (12) tables and chairs.

In Sichuan shadow play, both head and cap are separable and interchangeable, thus, the total quantity of shadow figures is less than in northern area. In a shadow play troupe, at least 200 shadow figures shall be on hands, together with 300-400 properties and background decorations. Main “weapons” (body) for support include: (1) show without acrobatics: 8 pieces of gowns with a sloping collar without waistband, 8 pieces of gowns with a sloping collar with waistband, 16pieces of uniformed civil official’s official robes, 4 pieces of gowns with a vertical collar (for ministry councilor), 4 pieces of gowns with a vertical collar with eggplants, 5 pieces of uniformed dresses with pythons, 5 pieces with miscellaneous pythons, 2 pieces of red cloaks and 2 pieces of yellow cloaks, 10 pieces of halved dresses with dragon flying to the heaven, 4 pieces of gowns with a sloping collar for civil officials and military officers, etc.; (2)show with acrobatics: 3 pieces of armors with arms and legs uncovered, 2 pieces of gowns with a vertical collar with arms uncovered, 5 pieces of uniformed coat armors, 4 pieces of dresses with gold dragons for shooting arrows, 2 pieces of gowns with a vertical collar, gold dragons for shooting arrows, 5 pieces of armors with gowns with a vertical collar, 5 pieces of armors without gowns with a vertical collar, 4 pieces of breech clothes (for boatman), 4 pieces of clothes for acrobatic fighting,10 pieces of halved short gowns for military use, 4 pieces of scarves (namely secretly-moving soldier), etc.; (3)gowns with a sloping collar for female:8 pieces of gowns with a sloping collar for female for various colors, 4 pieces of female official robes, 5 pieces of uniformed female dresses with pythons, 4 pieces of female waist skirts, 4 pieces of female dresses with arms uncovered (short Chinese-style female coat), 2 pieces of female armors, 2 pieces of maid’s dresses in an imperial palace, 4 pieces of dresses for eunuchs, 4 pieces of dresses for female court attendants, 4 pieces of dresses for slave girls, etc.; hats include helm, scarf, crown, hat, yarn, ermine, cover, mini awning, hairpin, hair shell, comb, clawker, mantle, etc. Decorations on heads differ from roles including male, female, painted face, the old and clown, immortal, fairy, Taoist priests and Buddhists, mountain spirits and water monsters, etc. Besides, backgrounds on the light boxes include flying or diving creatures and plants, pavilions, terraces and open halls, tables, chairs, benches, stools, swords, spears, two-edged swords and halberds and other tools. In the past, it took too much time and money to create a perfect box for light shadow, which was no trivial matter. In Volume 4: Light Shadow under the Old Record of Chengdu Language by Zhou Xunzhuo, it is recorded that:

At the end of Qing Dynasty, it only took a thousand pieces of gold to create a shadow play package. A rich man surnamed Song was fond of this and engaged craftsman to make one. Great efforts have been made on carving and painting. In addition to general required sceneries, immortals, monsters, birds and animals were also created, which were vivid in performance. The whole manufacturing period lasted 1 to 2 years and no less than 3,000 to 4,000 pieces of gold were spent.

II. Features of a shadow figure

Carving features of a shadow figure are based on the shadow play. Features of shadow play include: a complanate screen as the stage; persona on the screen are plane figure with facial expressions unchangeable; lamplight is adopted to achieve the bright shadows of persons and sceneries on the screen, which are supported by control and sounds from players. Therefore, shadow plays have two restrictions: 1. Flat surface restricts the performance in a pane pace rather than a 3D space. The imagined figure can’t move in a 3D space as a performer. 2. Figures are flat and most of them only show their side surface (half face), therefore, they can’t change their facial expressions freely. Conversely, the two restricts result in two distinct features of a shadow figure: since the stage and the shadow figure are fiat, the image will become indistinct once leaving he stage. Therefore, it is suitable for fairy tales in which persona has to rise in the sky and drill into the underground, mount the clouds and ride the mist, fight and change; and since most of the shadow figures are sideward carved, they could manifest personality and facial beauty of the persona to the most. Those smart and sagacious shadow figure makers take knife as the pen, make use of traditional folk industrial art techniques and the limited leather piece to create many unique shadow artworks which look like a picture in quiescent condition and present a play in dynamic condition. We could see common features as below in the shadow figure featured in southern and northernChina.

1. Reasonable deformation

In every kind of folk art and crafts, practice and beauty exist in harmony. Carving makers of a shadow figure take into account functions in design and aesthetic perception. To break through the restriction of plane shadow figure moving in a 2D space, artists adopt the artistry of reasonable transformation to change the appearance, allowing audiences to form distinct 3D sense visually and enhancing performance effect.

Take height proportion as an example. Painters and folk artists in the past had summarized some simple proportion relations via observation and comparison in persona art practice, which are called “Measuring Method”. In Brief Introduction to the Drawing Theories of Fantastic Residence by Zheng Ji from Qing Dynasty, it is said that “the length of body is determined by the face, which shall be 7 times of the face in standing, 5 times in sitting and 3 times in squatting.” In the Portraying Theories by Ding Gao from Qing Dynasty, it is said that “methods for portraying body are regulated as well. First we shall measure the face from hair line to border and take it as the standard. The body shall be 7 times of the face in standing, 5 times in sitting and 3 times in squatting. Crossing legs are the same with squatting. The distance between two middle fingers’ tops when both arms are extended completely shall be the people’s height in standing.”^① Zheng Ji and Ding Gao shared the same ideas. The proportion of shadow figure's body and height is 6:1 (Chengdu shadow), 5:1 (Shaanxi Huaxian shadow), 4:1 for certain painted faces and 3:1 for some clowns. Disproportionate shadow figure has changed the persona's external appearance, making the head larger, just the same as the big-headed dolls in folk paper-cut and New Year pictures. Such deformation gives people the feeling of visual imbalance. But on the screen, it makes up the disadvantage of smaller shadows, adapting to the visual requirements from audiences far away from the stage and highlighting the parts showing the features of persona to the best.

Then allow me to take headwear and trappings as an example. It is difficult to show the headwear and design patterns on clothes in sideward artistic figure. Therefore, artists, when carrying out sideward treatment of the shadow figure as a whole, deform the figure locally and execute many-sided composition by “scattered perspective” from folk drawing. Thus, in an artistic creation of the shadow figure, different angles including horizontally looking, overlooking, side- looking and looking up, are gathered and synthesized on the same plane to form three-dimension effect. Take the figure of a civilian official as an example. Half of the face (quintuplet facet) and 80% of the official's cap (octant facet) are shown while the 2 wings of both sides are back-head front treated to show the facial expressions of the persona and the shape as well as detailed design pattern on the hat vertically. For trappings, from the collar-line downward, they gradually turn to the front of 60% of the body and then turn to 70%-80% at the waist, finally almost reach 100% （the frontage).By this way, both shape and patterns on the trappings can be shown perfectly. Again take an old-fashioned wooden arm chair as an example. If we adopt sideward treatment, then audience would only see two oblong legs, armrest on one side and one side of backrest. Surprisingly, those inventively-minded craftsman used beveled side treatment to allow audiences to see the 4 angular legs, carefully and precisely made armrests on sides, well-decorated backrest and embedded seating washer. Other supporting sceneries and properties are treated according to this principle. Such deformed shadow play seems against general rules for drawing and carving (rule of “focus perspective”), but it meets audiences’ appreciation habits and aesthetic taste. They feel comfortable and acceptable. That is the so-called reasonability in inconsequence, changes (partial) in invariability (entire). In a nutshell: reasonable deformation^②_. 

2. Bold exaggeration

Exaggeration is frequently employed in folk artistic creation. Compared to other categories, leather shallow carving art is more distinct, outstanding and bolder in exaggerations which make exquisite puppets better than natural state though unlike it. Since it could reflect the essential properties of persona and sceneries more typically and more intensively, aesthetic perception is stronger, so is performance effect. The exaggerate figures of shadow play are mainly achieved via changes of lines. Carving methods for shadow figures mainly are 2: positive scribing and negative scribing. Positive scribing generates imaginary lines while the latter results in active lines which are mainly used in facial part while the imaginary lines are used in design patterns on trappings. Guanyuan Nai Deweng from Song Dynasty said in his book Washe Skills of Capital Wonders that creation principle for shadow figure in Song Dynasty was “the square shooter and official loyal to his sovereign shall have right appearance while the treacherous and blackhearted shall have ugly faces”. A person’s personality could be shown on his face via exaggerated lines. Almost all shadow figure’s five organs have been moved to the largest extent, beyond the normal anatomy rules. Take Huaxian shadow figure as an example. Generally both eyes and eyebrows are lengthened, nose and ears deformed and exaggerated. Through artistic exaggeration, verve is expressed in high quality. Flat eyebrow and frown are used to show the masculinity and feminine. Flat eyebrows and lengthened eyes are used to show the imperturbation and serenity of male and the old; curved eyebrows and line-like eyes are used to show the beauty and gentleness of the female while frown and phoenix eyes represent handsome and valiant man of prowess. For mouths, some are open and some are pursed. Young male and female are mouth-pursed and forehead-protuberant. Under the nose is a dot of red which is subtle and quite beautiful. In performance, the small mouth seems move but it doesn’t, being practical but virtual, giving audiences a kind of delicate imagination feeling of talking and singing. The painted persona has tangible face and frown to express his power and valiancy with mouth opened for most of the time. On the lion-nosed and leopard-eyed face with red eyebrows is an exaggeratedly deformed broad mouth supported by curly beard, which makes the persona mightier than thousand; on the hawk-nosed and vulture-eyed face is an open mouth to show crafty and treachery, highlighting the vile social evils characterized by treacherousness and fraudulency. The clown is rather stranger. Most of them are round-eyed with eyebrows with raised upward tip of the brows, a towering nose and a mouth half opened to express their buffoonery and humor. With beauty in humble figure,through ugly, they are not objectionable. For other sceneries, a set of special treatment methods and forms is available^③.

3. Smart symbolization

If we acknowledge that in the exaggeration of shadow figure creation, mood of personal is expressed via changes in lines; then in the symbolization, patterns of profound implications and colors are adopted to reflect the personalities and connotations of the persona. For facial makeup drawing and engraving for the painted force and clown, symbolization is relied frequently to shape the figure. For example: the First Emperor of Qin in Sichuan shadow play. Artists engraved 7 stars on his forehead according to the folklore that he has an uncommon face, representing that he is a star on the heaven and shall be the emperor. Meanwhile, 8 treasures are engraved on his face to represent his power of moving mountains and filling seas. Another example, a red snake often occurs in the eye sockets of those crafty men (Cao Cao, Pan Hong, eunuch in Ming Dynasty, etc.) in northwest Wanwanqiang shadow play to represent such figures’ craftiness and ruthlessness. On the head crown for the beauty in Hebei Laoting shadow paly, there is a distinctive creation- peacock engraved on headwear to represent auspiciousness and good fortune. The peacock spreads its wings slightly, raises its head and extends its neck, showing its beautiful features, representing the prideful and dignified women and enriching figures in young or middle-aged female and young unmarried female. On the white face of negative character in shadow play on Jianghan Plains in Hubei, there are two bermuda grasses like water waves, representing evil intentions and twisty natural instincts. Demons and ghosts are represented by beasts’ face and human body. For example: Sun Wukong with a monkey head and human body, representing Sun Wukong’s identity as the king of monkey and his clever character; Zhu Bajie consists of a pig head and human body with a Nine-Toothed Rake, representing his nature as a pig and his personality of being gluttonous and lazy, stupid and simple. Ox-headed and horse-faced demons in hell, shrimp soldiers and crab generals from the crystal palace, fish lady and the turtle prime minister, the Dragon King and his wife as well as other lives in water are crtated as half man and half beast. Such modeling not only precisely expresses the identity and personalities of the persona, but also brings people far away, implicating the age of half man and half beast in the development history of human beings. Headwear and trappings in shadow play have some representative patterns to show the person’s identity and express profound connotations. For example, in Sichuan shadow play, the dragon on the robe for the king represents that the king is the true son of the heaven and the pair of phoenixes on the crown of the empress represents her noble identity as the wife of the king; lion-helm and tiger-helm on the heads of generals represent that they are brave and resourceful in battle like lions and tigers as the lackeys of the king. Totem like “卍” is frequently adopted on trappings in Shaanxi shadow play, which means everlasting fortune and long life; “snow” symbolizes grace, elegance and purity. Besides, colors on the facial makeup have their special connotations as well. Generally, red means loyalty and braveness, moral integrity, Guan Yu and Zhao Kuangyin for instance; purple represents fealty, steadiness and prudence, for example, Zhuge Liang; black represents fair mind and straightforwardness, for example Zhang Fei and Bao Zheng; pink (light pink) signifies old loyal and right-minded folks, for example Cai Yang and Shang Yang; water white emblematizes the ill-intentioned person, such as Cao Cao; oil white emblems self-conceit, such as Kuai Che(Tong); yellow means acridity, such as Sun Bin; grey indicates greedy evils; blue indicates violence and valiancy; green indicates unruliness and peremptoriness; for immortals, Buddhists and spirits, golden and silver can be used to render their monstrous appearances^④.

4. Simple decoration

In folk shadow play arts, vivid decoration forms are used frequently for scribing of people, animals and plants, etc., especially in pattern design. In this aspect. shadow play figure takes in those homely, simple and decorative folk brocades, embroidery, paper-cut and other patterns in rendering, such as water, cloud, dragon, phoenix, flowers, birds, insects and grasses to form pictures characterized by rigorous layout, smooth lines, vivid images, bright colors and strong contrast, endowing the shadow play artwork with decoration pleasant to the eye. Not only those rich-colored facial makeup and trappings are typically decorative, chrysanthemum, plum, orchid, bamboo, tiger, leopard, lion and elephant all serve the purpose of decoration, especially those beasts in fairy tales, which are more romantic, strange and decorative. They are not sticklers for simulation of natural images, but synthesize, abstract and deform all available natural images, making them more typical, ideal and appreciable. For example, the celestial pony consists of paws of dragon, tail of tiger, face of horse, eyes of leopard, body of lion, horns of deer, all animal essentials gathering on the same one, causing the image mighty and brisk, mane spun, firing at the mouth. Though being neither fish nor fowl, it is quite charming.

Abovementioned deformation, exaggerations, symbolization and decoration are the four artistic features of shadow play figures. Though in some folk artworks, for example New Year pictures and paper-cut, such features can be found, manufacturers of shadow figures take into account functions in performance in aesthetic perception, therefore, when shadow play show on the screen, they could generate superior effects which can never be surpassed by general folk artworks.

Afterward

The article was written in summer of 1991and later selected as section II in Chapter XI Carving Art of Chinese Shadow Play in my book titled Shadow Play and Folk Customs in China. The book was never heard from again after submitting in response to the contribution invitation from Huaxia Publishing House. After a long-term inquiry, I became aware that my manuscript had been sold to Taiwan Shuxin Publishing House. Urged by sincere friends like Prof. Wei Qipeng inTaiwan, Shuxin Publishing House honored its commitment and published the book in April 1999 in Taipei. Time flies, eight years on, readers in the mainland still have no access to it, let alone overseas scholars who barely read Chinese. Now invited by Ms. Tang Dayu from the preparation team of The 21^st UNMA Congress, I polished and republished this article titled Study of Aesthetics of Shadow Drafting and Carving which I believe serves the congress theme and would love to share it with people pursuing this worthy endeavor.

Jiang Yuxiang

Note:

① Edited by Yu Jianhua: Categorized Collection of Chinese Pictures, by China Classical Art Publishing House in 1957.

② [Ming] Wang Qi, Wang Siyi: Sancai Tuhui Volume 11. etc., Shanghai Classics Publishing House, edition 1988, P1639- 1640.

③Zhang Qi: Huaxian Shadow Play by Huaxian Local Record Compilation Committee Office in December 1987.

④As to the symbolization of colors on facial makeup, artists have summarized in a pithy formula: “red loyalty, purple fealty, black rightness, pink senior, water white evils, oil white self-conceit; yellow acridity, grey greediness, blue violence, green unruliness, Buddhists and spirits shinning goldenly and silverly.

● Jiang Yuxiang

Professor of school of Literature and Journalism, Graduate Student Supervisor of Folklore in Sichuan University, President of Sichuan Folklore Society, a member of Sichuan Research Institute of Culture and History, and the Expert Committee on Chinese Folk Cultural Heritage Rescue Project, Director of Expert Committee on Sichuan Intangible Cultural Heritage Work, Consultant of Sichuan Society for the Study of Folk Literature and Art and Vice President of Sichuan Numismatic Society.

Publications: three academic monographs in Chinese Mainland, Taiwan and Germany, including Shadow Play in China, Shadow Play and Folk Customs in China, Sichuan Shadow Play; ten academic monographs as the editor-in-chief, including Research on Ancient Southwest Silk Road, Research on Ancient Southwest Silk Road (2nd Division), etc.; more than 130 academic theses at home and abroad.

The article reproduced from “The 21^st UNIMA Congress & World Puppetry Festival Thesis Compilation”